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Africa, Middle East, India

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If your country is not listed, please contact our International Admissions Office at pginternational@tudublin.ie.

 Bahrain Flag

  • Proof of English is required.

  • Remember to check whether the programme you are interested in has an entry requirement of a 2:2 or a 2:1.

Qualification Minimum grade Required/Degree 2:2 Equivalent Very Good/2:1 Equivalent Excellent/1st Equivalent
Bachelor Degree (4 Years) 2.75/4.0 GPA
University of Bahrain - GPA 2.75 out of 4.00 and a 4 year degree
Arabian Gulf University - 75% or above
3.2/4 GPA
University of Bahrain - GPA 3.2 out of 4.00 and 4 year degree
Arabian Gulf University - 85% or above.
3.5 / 4.0 GPA

Please note these are general guidelines. Meeting minimum entry requirements does not guarantee entry to any course. Actual requirements will vary depending on your chosen course of study. Most degree programmes as a general rule must be 4 years minimum in duration.

 bangladesh flag

  • Proof of English is required.

  • Remember to check whether the programme you are interested in has an entry requirement of a 2:2 or a 2:1.

Qualification Minimum grade Required/Degree 2:2 Equivalent Very Good/2:1 Equivalent Excellent/1st Equivalent

4 Year Honours Bachelor Degree OR Postgraduate Diploma

(Please note: Your award must be equivalent to a Level 8 award on the Irish Framework of Qualifications)

60% / 3.0 GPA

70% / 3.4 GPA 

80% / 3.75 GPA 

Please note these are general guidelines. Meeting minimum entry requirements does not guarantee entry to any course. Actual requirements will vary depending on your chosen course of study. Most degree programmes as a general rule must be 4 years minimum in duration.

 Flag of Benin

  • Proof of English is required.

  • Remember to check whether the programme you are interested in has an entry requirement of a 2:2 or a 2:1.

Qualification
At least 4 years for Degree
Minimum grade Required/Degree 2:2 Equivalent Very Good/2:1 Equivalent Excellent/1st Equivalent
Diplôme d'Études Approfondies / Supérieures / Master / MBA 12 /20 CGPA 15 /20 CGPA 17 /20 CGPA

Programmes from Private Institutions are checked on a case-by-case basis as they are not automatically accreditied.  Please refer any queries to NARIC UK. 

Please note these are general guidelines. Meeting minimum entry requirements does not guarantee entry to any course. Actual requirements will vary depending on your chosen course of study. Most degree programmes as a general rule must be 4 years minimum in duration.

 botswana flag

  • Proof of English is required.

  • Remember to check whether the programme you are interested in has an entry requirement of a 2:2 or a 2:1.

Qualification Minimum grade Required/Degree 2:2 Equivalent Very Good/2:1 Equivalent Excellent/1st Equivalent
4 Year Bachelor Degree with Honours - when accredited by the Botswana Qulaifications Authority (BQA) or pre-2016 by the Tertiary Education Council. 60%
2.2
70%
2.1
80%
First

Please note these are general guidelines. Meeting minimum entry requirements does not guarantee entry to any course. Actual requirements will vary depending on your chosen course of study. Most degree programmes as a general rule must be 4 years minimum in duration.

 brunei flag

  • Proof of English is required.

  • Remember to check whether the programme you are interested in has an entry requirement of a 2:2 or a 2:1.

Qualification Minimum grade Required/Degree 2:2 Equivalent Very Good/2:1 Equivalent Excellent/1st Equivalent
An Honours Degree from a recognised institution Minimum of Second class Honours / 2.75 GPA 2nd Class Honours upper division / 3.2 GPA 1st class Honours / 3.5 GPA

Please note these are general guidelines. Meeting minimum entry requirements does not guarantee entry to any course. Actual requirements will vary depending on your chosen course of study. Most degree programmes as a general rule must be 4 years minimum in duration.

 egypt flag

  • Proof of English is required.

  • Remember to check whether the programme you are interested in has an entry requirement of a 2:2 or a 2:1.

Qualification Minimum grade Required/Degree 2:2 Equivalent Very Good/2:1 Equivalent Excellent/1st Equivalent
Bachelor Degree from recognised State University-  or الدبلوم العام General Diploma [subject area] naric.ie 65% GPA 75% GPA 85% GPA
Bachelor Degree from recognised University (Arts classification) 70% GPA 80% GPA 90% GPA
Bachelor Degree from recognised State University (Sciences classification) 65% GPA 75% GPA 85% GPA

Please note these are general guidelines. Meeting minimum entry requirements does not guarantee entry to any course. Actual requirements will vary depending on your chosen course of study. Most degree programmes as a general rule must be 4 years minimum in duration.

 ethiopia flag

  • Proof of English is required.

  • Remember to check whether the programme you are interested in has an entry requirement of a 2:2 or a 2:1.

Qualification Minimum grade Required/Degree 2:2 Equivalent Very Good/2:1 Equivalent Excellent/1st Equivalent
Masters degree B
3/4 CGPA
B+
3.5/4 CGPA
A
4/4 CGPA

Please note these are general guidelines. Meeting minimum entry requirements does not guarantee entry to any course. Actual requirements will vary depending on your chosen course of study. Most degree programmes as a general rule must be 4 years minimum in duration.

 ghana flag

  • Proof of English proficiency is not required.

  • Remember to check whether the programme you are interested in has an entry requirement of a 2:2 or a 2:1.

Qualification Minimum grade Required/Degree 2:2 Equivalent Very Good/2:1 Equivalent Excellent/1st Equivalent
Bachelor Degree or a Master's Degree Second Class Lower / 50% Second Class Upper / 60% First Class / 70%

Please note these are general guidelines. Meeting minimum entry requirements does not guarantee entry to any course. Actual requirements will vary depending on your chosen course of study. Most degree programmes as a general rule must be 4 years minimum in duration.

 india flag Requires submission of grading scale with each application

  • Proof of English is required.

  • Remember to check whether the programme you are interested in has an entry requirement of a 2:2 or a 2:1.

Qualification

Minimum grade Required/Degree 2:2 Equivalent Very Good/2:1 Equivalent Excellent/1st Equivalent

Bachelor Degree Programmes in Agriculture/Dentistry/Engineering/Pharmacy/Technology. 

Usually 4 years in duration.

Tier 1: 50%
Tier 2: 55%
Tier 1: 65%
Tier 2: 70%
Tier 1: 75%
Tier 2: 80%

Bachelor Degree (in professional subjects) eg Business Administration/Computer Applications/Journalism/Management Studies. 

Usually 3 years in duration.

Tier 1: 5/10 CGPA
Tier 2: 5.5/10 CGPA
Tier 1: 6.5/10 CGPA
Tier 2: 7/10 CGPA
Tier 1: 7.5/10 CGPA
Tier 2: 8/10 CGPA

Doctor of Pharmacy (Pharm.D)
Duration 5 years and 1 year internship

Bachelors Degree in Archeticture/Dental Surgery/Fine Arts/Medicine/Vetinary Science. 

Usually 5 years in duration.

Tier 1:2.5/4 CGPA
Tier 2: 2.75/4 CGPA
Tier 1: 2.75/4 CGPA
Tier 2: 3/4 CGPA
Tier 1: 3/4 CGPA
Tier 2: 3.5/4 CGPA

Please note these are general guidelines. Meeting minimum entry requirements does not guarantee entry to any course. Actual requirements will vary depending on your chosen course of study. Most degree programmes as a general rule must be 4 years minimum in duration.

 iran flag

  • Proof of English is required.

  • Remember to check whether the programme you are interested in has an entry requirement of a 2:2 or a 2:1.

Qualification Minimum grade Required/Degree 2:2 Equivalent Very Good/2:1 Equivalent Excellent/1st Equivalent
Bachelor Degree (4 Years), دکترای حرفه ای (Professional Doctorate), Licence or Karshenasi. 13/20 CGPA 15/20 CGPA 17/20 CGPA

Please note these are general guidelines. Meeting minimum entry requirements does not guarantee entry to any course. Actual requirements will vary depending on your chosen course of study. Most degree programmes as a general rule must be 4 years minimum in duration.

 iraq flag

  • Proof of English is required.

  • Remember to check whether the programme you are interested in has an entry requirement of a 2:2 or a 2:1.

Qualification
البكالوريوس (al-bakâlûriyyûs)
Minimum grade Required/Degree 2:2 Equivalent Very Good/2:1 Equivalent Excellent/1st Equivalent
4 year Bachelors /
Minimum study period of between 4-5 years with specialisation - Engineering field, high grade, project.
60% - 74% 75% - 89% 90% - 100%

Please note these are general guidelines. Meeting minimum entry requirements does not guarantee entry to any course. Actual requirements will vary depending on your chosen course of study. Most degree programmes as a general rule must be 4 years minimum in duration.

 kazakhstan flag

  • Proof of English is required.

  • Remember to check whether the programme you are interested in has an entry requirement of a 2:2 or a 2:1.

Qualification Minimum grade Required/Degree 2:2 Equivalent Very Good/2:1 Equivalent Excellent/1st Equivalent
Bakalavr (bachelor degree) 3.9/5 4.3/5 4.7/5
5 year University Diploma or New-style 4 year Degree 3.9/5 4.3/5 4.7/5

Please note these are general guidelines. Meeting minimum entry requirements does not guarantee entry to any course. Actual requirements will vary depending on your chosen course of study. Most degree programmes as a general rule must be 4 years minimum in duration.

 kenya flag

  • Proof of English proficiency is not required.

  • Remember to check whether the programme you are interested in has an entry requirement of a 2:2 or a 2:1.

Qualification Minimum grade Required/Degree 2:2 Equivalent Very Good/2:1 Equivalent Excellent/1st Equivalent
Bachelor Degree 50% GPA - Second Class Honours (lower division) 60% GPA - 2.1 70% GPA - 1st

Please note these are general guidelines. Meeting minimum entry requirements does not guarantee entry to any course. Actual requirements will vary depending on your chosen course of study. Most degree programmes as a general rule must be 4 years minimum in duration.

 kuwait flag

  • Proof of English is required.

  • Remember to check whether the programme you are interested in has an entry requirement of a 2:2 or a 2:1.

Qualification Minimum grade Required/Degree 2:2 Equivalent Very Good/2:1 Equivalent Excellent/1st Equivalent
Bachelor Degree (4 Years) 2.75/4 CGPA 3/5 CGPA 3.2/4 or 4.0/5 CGPA 3.5 / 4 or 4.4/5 CGPA

Please note these are general guidelines. Meeting minimum entry requirements does not guarantee entry to any course. Actual requirements will vary depending on your chosen course of study. Most degree programmes as a general rule must be 4 years minimum in duration.

 lebanon flag

  • Proof of English is required.

  • Remember to check whether the programme you are interested in has an entry requirement of a 2:2 or a 2:1.

Qualification Minimum grade Required/Degree 2:2 Equivalent Very Good/2:1 Equivalent Excellent/1st Equivalent
Bachelor Degree (4 years) Average mark of 13 Average mark of 15 Average mark of 17
Bachelor Degree (4 Years) from the American University of Beirut or Beirut Arab University 75% CGPA 85% CGPA 90% CGPA
Maîtrise Average mark of 13 Average mark of 15 Average mark of 17

Please note these are general guidelines. Meeting minimum entry requirements does not guarantee entry to any course. Actual requirements will vary depending on your chosen course of study. Most degree programmes as a general rule must be 4 years minimum in duration.

 liberia flag

  • Proof of English is required.

  • Remember to check whether the programme you are interested in has an entry requirement of a 2:2 or a 2:1.

Qualification Minimum grade Required/Degree 2:2 Equivalent Very Good/2:1 Equivalent Excellent/1st Equivalent
Liberian Master's degree B/80%-84% B+/85%-89% A/90%-100%

Please note these are general guidelines. Meeting minimum entry requirements does not guarantee entry to any course. Actual requirements will vary depending on your chosen course of study. Most degree programmes as a general rule must be 4 years minimum in duration.

 libya flag

  • Proof of English is required.

  • Remember to check whether the programme you are interested in has an entry requirement of a 2:2 or a 2:1.

Qualification
(Bachelor Degree: typically of 4-5 years duration, awarded by universities.)
Minimum grade Required/Degree 2:2 Equivalent Very Good/2:1 Equivalent Excellent/1st Equivalent
Libyan University Bachelor Degree 65% CGPA 75% CGPA 85% CGPA
Bachelor Degree from Tripoli University (formerly Al Fateh University) and Benghazi University (formerly Garyounis) 58% CGPA 70% CGPA 80% CGPA

Please note these are general guidelines. Meeting minimum entry requirements does not guarantee entry to any course. Actual requirements will vary depending on your chosen course of study. Most degree programmes as a general rule must be 4 years minimum in duration.

 malawi flag

  • Proof of English is required.

  • Remember to check whether the programme you are interested in has an entry requirement of a 2:2 or a 2:1.

Qualification Minimum grade Required/Degree 2:2 Equivalent Very Good/2:1 Equivalent Excellent/1st Equivalent
Masters from Mzuzu University and University of Malawi 60-69% CGPA – PASS with credit 70-74% CGPA Pass with Marginal Distinction 75-100% CGPA

Please note these are general guidelines. Meeting minimum entry requirements does not guarantee entry to any course. Actual requirements will vary depending on your chosen course of study. Most degree programmes as a general rule must be 4 years minimum in duration.

 maldives flag

  • Proof of English is required.

  • Remember to check whether the programme you are interested in has an entry requirement of a 2:2 or a 2:1.

Qualification Minimum grade Required/Degree 2:2 Equivalent Very Good/2:1 Equivalent Excellent/1st Equivalent
Bachelors degree from Maldives National University Minimum of Second Class Honours (Second Division) Second Class Honours (First Division) 1st Class Honours

Please note these are general guidelines. Meeting minimum entry requirements does not guarantee entry to any course. Actual requirements will vary depending on your chosen course of study. Most degree programmes as a general rule must be 4 years minimum in duration.

 mauritius flag

  • Proof of English is required.

  • Remember to check whether the programme you are interested in has an entry requirement of a 2:2 or a 2:1.

Qualification Minimum grade Required/Degree 2:2 Equivalent Very Good/2:1 Equivalent Excellent/1st Equivalent
Bachelor Degree Minimum of Second Class Honours (Second Division)/50% Second Class Honours (First Division)/60% 1st Class Honours/70%

Please note these are general guidelines. Meeting minimum entry requirements does not guarantee entry to any course. Actual requirements will vary depending on your chosen course of study. Most degree programmes as a general rule must be 4 years minimum in duration.

 namibia flag

  • Proof of English is required.

  • Remember to check whether the programme you are interested in has an entry requirement of a 2:2 or a 2:1.

Qualification Minimum grade Required/Degree 2:2 Equivalent Very Good/2:1 Equivalent Excellent/1st Equivalent
Bachelor Honours degree / Professional Bachelor degree or Master’s degree Good/60% CGPA Very Good/70%-79% CGPA Distinction/80+% CGPA

Please note these are general guidelines. Meeting minimum entry requirements does not guarantee entry to any course. Actual requirements will vary depending on your chosen course of study. Most degree programmes as a general rule must be 4 years minimum in duration.

 nepal flag

  • Proof of English is required.

  • Remember to check whether the programme you are interested in has an entry requirement of a 2:2 or a 2:1.

Qualification Minimum grade Required/Degree 2:2 Equivalent Very Good/2:1 Equivalent Excellent/1st Equivalent
Bachelor degree 3 years + Masters degree 60% CGPA 75% CGPA 85% CGPA
Bachelor Degree (4 years which includes Research element) 60% CGPA 75% CGPA 85% CGPA

Please note these are general guidelines. Meeting minimum entry requirements does not guarantee entry to any course. Actual requirements will vary depending on your chosen course of study. Most degree programmes as a general rule must be 4 years minimum in duration.

 nigeria flag

  • Proof of English proficiency is not required.

  • Remember to check whether the programme you are interested in has an entry requirement of a 2:2 or a 2:1.

Qualification
At least 4 years for Degree
Minimum grade Required/Degree 2:2 Equivalent Very Good/2:1 Equivalent Excellent/1st Equivalent
Bachelor Honours degree from a government recognised University Lower Second Class 50 – 59% Upper Second Class 60% First Class 70%
Professional Diploma (Post HND) Lower Second Class Upper Second Class 60% First Class 70%

Please note these are general guidelines. Meeting minimum entry requirements does not guarantee entry to any course. Actual requirements will vary depending on your chosen course of study. Most degree programmes as a general rule must be 4 years minimum in duration.

 oman flag

  • Proof of English is required.

  • Remember to check whether the programme you are interested in has an entry requirement of a 2:2 or a 2:1.

Qualification Minimum grade Required/Degree 2:2 Equivalent Very Good/2:1 Equivalent Excellent/1st Equivalent
Bachelor Degree (4 Years) 2.75/4 CGPA or 3/5 CGPA 3.2/4 or 4.0/5 CGPA 3.5/4 or 4.4/5 CGPA

Please note these are general guidelines. Meeting minimum entry requirements does not guarantee entry to any course. Actual requirements will vary depending on your chosen course of study. Most degree programmes as a general rule must be 4 years minimum in duration.

 pakistan flag

  • Proof of English is required.

  • Remember to check whether the programme you are interested in has an entry requirement of a 2:2 or a 2:1.

Qualification Minimum grade Required/Degree 2:2 Equivalent Very Good/2:1 Equivalent Excellent/1st Equivalent
Honours Bachelor Degree / Professional Degree (4 Years minimum) - any discipline excluding Bachelor of Education. 2.5/4 CGPA or 3/5 CGPA 3.2/4 or 4.0/5 CGPA 3.5/4 or 4.4/5 CGPA

Please note these are general guidelines. Meeting minimum entry requirements does not guarantee entry to any course. Actual requirements will vary depending on your chosen course of study. Most degree programmes as a general rule must be 4 years minimum in duration.

 qatar image

  • Proof of English is required.

  • Remember to check whether the programme you are interested in has an entry requirement of a 2:2 or a 2:1.

Qualification Minimum grade Required/Degree 2:2 Equivalent Very Good/2:1 Equivalent Excellent/1st Equivalent
Bachelor Degree 2.75/4.0 CGPA or 3/5 CGPA 3.2/4 or 4.0/5 CGPA 3.5/4 or 4.4/5 CGPA

Please note these are general guidelines. Meeting minimum entry requirements does not guarantee entry to any course. Actual requirements will vary depending on your chosen course of study. Most degree programmes as a general rule must be 4 years minimum in duration.

 rwanda flag

  • Proof of English is required.

  • Remember to check whether the programme you are interested in has an entry requirement of a 2:2 or a 2:1.

Qualification Minimum grade Required/Degree 2:2 Equivalent Very Good/2:1 Equivalent Excellent/1st Equivalent
Bachelor Degree (Hons) 70%/distinction 80%/grande distinction 90%/plus grande satisfaction

Please note these are general guidelines. Meeting minimum entry requirements does not guarantee entry to any course. Actual requirements will vary depending on your chosen course of study. Most degree programmes as a general rule must be 4 years minimum in duration.

 saudi arabia flag

  • Proof of English is required.

  • Remember to check whether the programme you are interested in has an entry requirement of a 2:2 or a 2:1.

Qualification Minimum grade Required/Degree 2:2 Equivalent Very Good/2:1 Equivalent Excellent/1st Equivalent
Bachelor Degree (4 Years) 2.75/4 or 3/5 3.2/4 or 4.0/5 CGPA 3.5/4 or 4.5/5 CGPA

Please note these are general guidelines. Meeting minimum entry requirements does not guarantee entry to any course. Actual requirements will vary depending on your chosen course of study. Most degree programmes as a general rule must be 4 years minimum in duration.

 sierra leone flag

  • Proof of English is required.

  • Remember to check whether the programme you are interested in has an entry requirement of a 2:2 or a 2:1.

Qualification
Please note that standards may vary and assessment on a case-by-case basis is recommended.
Minimum grade Required/Degree 2:2 Equivalent Very Good/2:1 Equivalent Excellent/1st Equivalent
Bachelor Degree (Hons)/Master’s Degree – Assessment on a case-by-case basis recommended. Class II (Lower) Class II (Upper) Class I

Please note these are general guidelines. Meeting minimum entry requirements does not guarantee entry to any course. Actual requirements will vary depending on your chosen course of study. Most degree programmes as a general rule must be 4 years minimum in duration.

 south africa flag

  • Proof of English proficiency is not required.

  • Remember to check whether the programme you are interested in has an entry requirement of a 2:2 or a 2:1.

Qualification Minimum grade Required/Degree 2:2 Equivalent Very Good/2:1 Equivalent Excellent/1st Equivalent
4 Year Honours Bachelors degree/Professional Bachelor degree - Professional disciplines include technology, engineering, law, medicine, dental medicine, nursing, pharmacy and education. 60-69% CGPA
Lower Second
70%-74% CGPA
Upper Second
75+% CGPA

Please note these are general guidelines. Meeting minimum entry requirements does not guarantee entry to any course. Actual requirements will vary depending on your chosen course of study. Most degree programmes as a general rule must be 4 years minimum in duration.

 sri lanka flag

  • Proof of English is required.

  • Remember to check whether the programme you are interested in has an entry requirement of a 2:2 or a 2:1.

Qualification Minimum grade Required/Degree 2:2 Equivalent Very Good/2:1 Equivalent Excellent/1st Equivalent
Professional Degree or Bachelor Degree (Special or Honours)
At least four years in duration stating “Special” or “Honours” in transcript or Letter of Certification.
B/3.0/Second Lower B+/3.3/Second Upper A-/3.7/First

Please note these are general guidelines. Meeting minimum entry requirements does not guarantee entry to any course. Actual requirements will vary depending on your chosen course of study. Most degree programmes as a general rule must be 4 years minimum in duration.

 tanzania flag

  • Proof of English is required.

  • Remember to check whether the programme you are interested in has an entry requirement of a 2:2 or a 2:1.

Qualification Minimum grade Required/Degree 2:2 Equivalent Very Good/2:1 Equivalent Excellent/1st Equivalent
Bachelor Degree B/50-59% CGPA B+/60-69% CGPA A/70+% CGPA

Please note these are general guidelines. Meeting minimum entry requirements does not guarantee entry to any course. Actual requirements will vary depending on your chosen course of study. Most degree programmes as a general rule must be 4 years minimum in duration.

 uganda flag

  • Proof of English is required.

  • Remember to check whether the programme you are interested in has an entry requirement of a 2:2 or a 2:1.

Qualification Minimum grade Required/Degree 2:2 Equivalent Very Good/2:1 Equivalent Excellent/1st Equivalent
Bachelor Degree (from Ugandan University) - Bachelor degrees are generally three years in length, except for degree programmes in areas such as agriculture, engineering, forestry, technology and veterinary science, which take four years to complete. Class 2.2, Honours Lower, Min CGPA 3.0-3.9 on a 5 point scale. Class 2.1, Honours Upper, Min CGPA of 4.0-4.3 on a 5 point scale. Class 1,Top Honours, Min CGPA of 4.4-5.0 on a 5 point scale.

Please note these are general guidelines. Meeting minimum entry requirements does not guarantee entry to any course. Actual requirements will vary depending on your chosen course of study. Most degree programmes as a general rule must be 4 years minimum in duration.

 united arab emirates flag

  • Proof of English is required.

  • Remember to check whether the programme you are interested in has an entry requirement of a 2:2 or a 2:1.

Qualification Minimum grade Required/Degree 2:2 Equivalent Very Good/2:1 Equivalent Excellent/1st Equivalent
Bachelor Degree 2.75/4 CGPA 3.2/4 CGPA 3.5/4 CGPA

Please note these are general guidelines. Meeting minimum entry requirements does not guarantee entry to any course. Actual requirements will vary depending on your chosen course of study. Most degree programmes as a general rule must be 4 years minimum in duration.

 zambia flag

  • Proof of English is required.

  • Remember to check whether the programme you are interested in has an entry requirement of a 2:2 or a 2:1.

Qualification Minimum grade Required/Degree 2:2 Equivalent Very Good/2:1 Equivalent Excellent/1st Equivalent
Master’s Degree B
3/4
B+
3.5/4
A
4/4

Please note these are general guidelines. Meeting minimum entry requirements does not guarantee entry to any course. Actual requirements will vary depending on your chosen course of study. Most degree programmes as a general rule must be 4 years minimum in duration.

 zimabwe flag

  • Proof of English is required.

  • Remember to check whether the programme you are interested in has an entry requirement of a 2:2 or a 2:1.

Qualification Minimum grade Required/Degree 2:2 Equivalent Very Good/2:1 Equivalent Excellent/1st Equivalent
Bachelor Degree (Honours) Lower Second Division
60-64%
Upper Second Division
65-74%
First Division
75% - 100%

Please note these are general guidelines. Meeting minimum entry requirements does not guarantee entry to any course. Actual requirements will vary depending on your chosen course of study. Most degree programmes as a general rule must be 4 years minimum in duration.